Dramatis Personae


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Dramatis Personae of the History and Exploration of the Greater Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamirs, Hindu-Kush, Tibet, Afghanistan, High Tartary and Surrounding Territories, up to 1921.

Bill Buxton

Last updated May 3rd, 2009

A work in progress.

"A Comparative View of the Principal Mountains
in the World with their Altitudes".

The scan of this 1830 image was given to me be a colleague, Nahum Gershon, of Mitre Corp. He found the original in a flea market in NYC. It was accompanied by a penciled note saying:

Hand-colored steel engraving of the Thos. Starling "Family Cabinet Atlas" London, Bull & Co., 1820.'

This date (1820) is different from the one printed on the engraving (1830) - a mistake of the writer in pencil? Click on the image to get a high resolution version on which you can read the captions.

Contents

Introduction

Introduction
This is a companion page to my pages on the literature, chronology and lexicon of terms and events around the history of Central Asia, including the history of exploration and mountaineering:

The simple matter is, I simply can't keep track of all of the people involved in the history and exploration of this part of the world, a region on which I focus most of my reading. Hence, this page is an aid that helps me remember who was who, what they did, when they did it, and how people, events and locations relate to one another. It is also a means to link individuals to books by them and about them.

In order to keep the page manageable, I have adopted a self imposed constraint to limit the period covered to before 1921, the date of the first Everest expedition. Even with this constraint, this page, almost definition, incomplete, superficial, and sparse.

Entries represent individuals, listed alphabetically by last name. I speak none of the languages of the area, so I beg the reader's patience in my spellings, and in my choice of the name under which I index people. I can only offer that I have done my best, and that the literature that I have reviewed is also inconsistent in both spelling and indexing conventions. In many cases, I have tried to ensure that all common spellings are included, and with Chinese names, I have chosen to index according to the modern spellings, but with links from the older form.

There are four types of references on this page:

1. In the body of the entries you will find certain names underlined and in blue. These are people, events, or locations for which there is a separate entry that I have written in my pages. Clicking on the indicated word will take you to that entry.

2. In the body of the entries, you will also see things like: "[Cit. 1, 2, 3]". These are links to pages on the internet written by others from which I have drawn information, or which are relevant to the person or event being discussed. Just click on the digits to access the associated source.

3. After many entries, you will find publications listed under the heading, "Refs". These are books either by or about the person and events in the entry. Those which have the title in blue and underlined are references that are in my personal library, listed on the page, Books on Climbing, Mountaineering & Exploration. Clicking on the title will get you to the reference and my annotation to it. Those which do not have links from their titles are relevant sources that are on my "wish list." Where I do not have full bibliographic data, you will find the characters "XX" in the incomplete field.

4. There are some general sources from the web which are listed at the end of this web page

Please think of this as an "open source" page. As with all of my pages, comments and suggestions are welcome - especially suggestions for additional people to include, mini-biographies for them, or additions, corrections, etc. to biographical or bibliographic notes that I currently have.

Finally, in many ways this page is rendered redundant in light of the Wikipedia. At some point I will cross-reference my entries with it. However, this page still has value in the fact that it lets me have tighter cross-links with my other, related pages. Each has its own strengths.

Abbott, Capt. James

British officer sent to Khiva from Herat in response to Perovsky's 1839 expedition to seize the city. The objective was to convince the Khan to free the Russian slaves held in the city before the Russian force got too far. In so doing, the idea was to remove the justification used for the invasion. While he did not succeed in freeing the slaves, he did manage to treat with the Khan and get agreement to negotiate the freedom of the slaves with the Russians, should they halt their invasion. As it turns out, the Russians were stopped by the weather, and the slaves were freed, nevertheless, by Abbott's fellow officer Shakespear, shortly thereafter, in 1840.

Ref:

o Abbott, Capt. James. (1843). Narrative of a Journey from Heraut to Khiva, Moscow and St. Petersburg, During the Late Russian Invasion of Khiva; With Some Account of the Court of Khiva and the Kingdom of Khaurism. London: Wm. H. Allen.

Abdul Kadir Khan

An Indian merchant and Moslem holy man active in Nepal, who served as Duncan's agent in Kathmandu during the second Tibetan-Nepalese conflict (1791-92). In 1795 was dispatched by the East India Company to Kathmandu, with inventory, to set himself up as a trader in Nepal, with the objective of collecting information concerning potential trade with Tibet. The idea was to see if Nepal could be a gateway for trade with Tibet, after 1792. A trusted native trader was considered as having more chance of success in this than a European. The mission was a success in that it established that there was a market for British good in Nepal, and that furthermore, many of these goods were subsequently exported to Tibet. The primary issue was that the Gurkha middle-men stood between the British traders and Tibet, and that the commissions that they took diminished the business viability.

Abdurrahman Khan

See Abdur Rahman Khan.

Abruzzi, Duke of. (Prince Luigi Amedeo of Savoy) (1873–1933).

An Italian noble who undertook a number of exceptional expeditions, including the first ascent of Mount St. Elias on the Alaskan border (1897), an attempt to reach the North Pole (1899-1900) which reached a point farther north than Nansen's record, the Ruwenzori mountains in Africa (1906) and an attempt on K2 (1909), on which he set a world altitude record of 24,600 ft.

Associated with the geographer Filippo de Filippi and the photographer Vittorio Sella, both of whom accompanied him to Mount St. Elias, Africa and K2. On the K2 expedition, was also accompanied by the Brocherol brothers.

Refs:

· Audisio, Aldo (Ed.). (1991). Alpinismo Italiano in Karakorum / Italian Mountaineering in the Karakoram. Torino: Museo Nazionale della Montagna <<Duca degli Abruzzi>>

· Tenderini, Mirella & Michael Shandrick. (1977). The Duke of Abruzzi: An Explorer's Life. Seattle: The Mountaineers.

Adam, J.

Secretary to the Indian Government during Anglo-Gurkha war of 1814-16. Made the suggestion to establish relations with Sikkim during the war, as a means of establishing a diplomatic link with the Chinese in Lhasa. Given the close links between Sikkim and Tibet, the intent was to help mitigate against fears that the war might have a negative impact on Anglo-Chinese relations. (See note on Dr. Buchanan.) This led directly to the missions of Captain Latter and David Scott.

Afzal Khan (1811-1867)

Second son of Dost Mohammed and father of Abdur Rahman, (who himself became Amir of Afghanistan after the second Anglo-Afghan war). Afzal had his land confiscated and was imprisoned by his brother, Amir Sher Ali. This was during the five year struggle for power after the death of Dost Mohammed in 1863. When Rahman had temporary success against Sher Ali, and captured Kabul, he freed his father, and installed him as Amir in 1866. However, Afzal Khan died of cholera 1867, and was briefly succeeded by his brother, Azim Khan.

Afzul, Sher

Brother of Aman-ul-Mulk. Murdered Afzul-ul-Mulk, his nephew, whom he then succeeded as Mehar of Chitral. Supported in this by Amir of Kabul. Ousted by Nizam-ul-Mulk, Afzul's brother. Nizam was encouraged to do so by Algernon Durand, who did not trust the Afghan influence on Afzul. On being deposed, Afzul fled back to Afghanistan.

Afzul-ul-Mulk

Son of Aman-ul-Mulk. Seized Meharship on his father's death in 1892, and proceeded to kill rivals. Meharship approved by Algernon Durand and Lockhart. Murdered shortly after taking power by his uncle, Sher Afzul, who then succeeded him.

Agnew, P.A. Vans

Following the conclusion of the first Anglo-Sikh war, in July 1846 was appointed (along with Captain A. Cunningham) as joint commissioner to establish the boundary between Ladakh and Tibet. The commissioners were also charged with investigating the state of trade with Tibet.

Ahmed (Ahmad) Shah Bahadur (1727 - 1775)

Succeeded father, Muhammad Shah, as Mugal emperor in 1748. During his reign, his namesake, Ahmed Shah Abdali invaded the Punjab for the second time and obtained the cessation of the whole province. In 1754 he was then deposed and blinded by his Wazir, Ghazi-ud-din, who placed Alamgir II, a son of Jahander Shah, on the throne. He died the following year.

Ahmed (Ahmad) Khan, Shah Abdali (Durrani) (1722 - 1772)

Founder of the dynasty of the Popozai/ Saduzai branch of the Durranis. Afghan military leader, known as the "Father of Afghanistan." Sometimes referred to as Ahmed Shah Durrani or Ahmed Khan. Had been one of the military leaders of Nadir Shah. On Nadir's death in 1747, Ahmed not only had a number of troops at his disposal, he also had possession of his treasury, both of which he used to build up his power. This he used to take control, initially of the territories of what was to become Afghanistan, and then made himself Shah, a position he maintained until his death in 1772. Founder of the dynasty of the Popozai branch of the Durranis (Duranni / Douranee) tribe. In this, he was supported by the Barukzais branch of the Durrani, led by Payanda Khan. The Popozai branch held power until the rise of Dost Mohammed., which brought the Barukzais branch of the Durrani to power. Between 1748 and 1769, Ahmed invaded India nine times, and established an Afghan hegemony over most of northwest India, including Kashmir, Sind and Delhi. While he succeeded in uniting Afghanistan, he failed to consolidate his larger (Indian) empire, and it disintegrated on his death. Had seven sons. Grandfather of Shah Shuja. Ahmed Shah was succeeded by his son, Timur Shah.

A.K.

See Kishen Singh.

Akbar, Jalal ud-Din Muhammad (1543-1605)

Mughal emperor (1556-1605), succeeding his father, Humayun. Known as Akbar the Great: Shah of Shahs. Mother tongue was form of Turki, and the state language was Persian. Considered the greatest of Mughal rulers (see Woodruff's, The Founders, for example). Laid foundation for religious tolerance in the empire. In 1562 married Padmini, a Hindu princess from Rajaputana. In 1564 abolished the Jizya, a "poll tax" that had been levied on non-Muslims. Also reformed the system of land tax which was sustainable, in that it was fair, and did not "break the back" of those who worked the land. Father of Jehangir, who succeeded him.

Ref:

· Eraly, Abraham (2003). The Mughal Throne: The Saga of India's Great Emperors. London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson.

Akbar Khan, Mohammed (1818-1847)

Member of the Barakzai branch of the Durranis. Oldest son of Dost Mohammed. At 19 led a campaign to try and win back Peshawar from the Sikhs. In 1841 returned to Kabul as one of the leaders during the uprising against the British during the First Anglo-Afghan war. Treated with Macnaghten, but caught him in double dealing and killed him in 1841, after playing the same game in reverse. Double dealt with the British, and especially the incompetent Elphinstone, during their disastrous retreat. Lived to see his father restored to the throne, but died at age 29, never assuming the throne, himself.

Akhun, Islam

Treasure hunter in region around Khotan. In the mid 1890's was one of the prime sources for "ancient" manuscripts in a hitherto unknown language and script, which found their way into collections in London, Calcutta, St. Petersburg and Paris. Macartney bought a number of these for Hoernle. As it turns out, there was a reason that the script was unknown. As Stein was able to determine, it was made up by Akhun, and the manuscripts were forgeries that he had made.

Alamgir II, Muhammad Aizuddin (1699 - 1759)

Son of Jahandar Shah. Placed on the throne as Mugal Emperor in 1754 by Ghazi-ud-din, the Wazir who had blinded, and deposed Ahmad Shah. During his reign, in 1754, Ahmed Shah Abdali invaded the Punjab for the fourth time and captured Delhi. Alamgir II was succeeded by his son, Shah Alam II in 1759, after he was murdered by Ghazi-ud-din.

Alexander III of Macedon (Alexander the Great) (356-323 B.C.)

Between 343-323 BC conquered Central Asia. He moved through the Persian empire, defeating the last of its provinces, Bactria, in 328 BC. Proceeded through Afghanistan, and penetrated into the Punjab and Kashmir. [Cit: 1]

Ali Khan, Sardar Muhammad

Member of the Barakzai branch of the Durranis. Son of Amir Sher Ali, and older brother of Yakub Khan.

Ali Mirza, Muhammad

Reported to be nephew of Dost Mohammed, but the name suggests that he was rather a member of Popozai branch of Durrani tribe. Employed by Rambir Singh, Maharaja of Kashmir. Sent to Kabul on intelligence mission in July 1889, and was present when the British embassy, under Cavagnari, was sacked.

Ali, Muhoomed (Mohammed)

Native surveyor from the Survey of India. Educated at the Engineer Institute of Bombay. Accompanied Burnes in his 1831 trip up the Indus, delivering 4 dray horses, which were a gift of the crown to Ranjit Singh. Also traveled with Burnes to Bokhara in 1832.

Ali, Safdur

Hunza ruler. Received Gromchevsky in 1888, which prompted visit by Younghusband. Obtained power by killing father, mother and two brothers. Notorious for supporting raids from Hunza on caravans traveling between Ladakh and Yarkand, on the Karakoram route. Due to this, was eventually deposed in 1891 by a British mission from Gilgit led by Algernon Durand.

Allard, Jean Francois (1785-1839)

French. Served in the imperial army of France. On defeat of Napoleon, came to Lahore, along with Ventura, in 1822 to seek service in the Sikh army of Ranjit Singh. On approaching the Khyber Pass, en route to Lahore, encountered the Hungarian Körösi, who traveled the rest of the way with their caravan. [Cit. 1 ] Placed in charge of recruiting and training Ranjit Singh's cavalry. Returned to France on leave in June 1834 and returned 18 months later. Allard continued to serve Singh until his death in 1839.

Ref:

o Grey, C. (H. L. O. Garrett, ed.) (1929). European Adventurers of Northern India, 1785 to 1849. Lahore, India: Superintendent, Government Printing, Punjab.

Almeida, Diogo de

Portuguese merchant, who visited Ladakh in about 1600. Returned to Europe from his trip to Goa, India, in 1603, and reported the existence of a Christian community surviving in Ladakh. This report helped provide a catalyst for the subsequent trip of Father Antonio de Andrada.

Ref:

o Maclagan, Sir Edward. (1932). The Jesuits and the Great Mogul. London: XX.

Amanullah, Amir / King

Third son of Amir Habibullah. Was Governor of Kabul at the time of his father's assassination in February of 1919. Won out over his uncle, Nasrullah's claim to succeed Habibullah as Amir of Afghanistan. Amanullah is suspected of being involved in his father's death. Regardless, shortly after assuming control, capitalizing on unrest in India, and perhaps partially to divert attention from domestic affairs, declared a jihad against Britain on May 5, 1919. Afghans entered territories across the northwest frontier of India, which had at times been part of Afghanistan, and this prompted the brief third Anglo-Afghan War. Despite limited resources, partially due to this occurring on the tail of WW I, Britain nevertheless responded strongly and decisively to this incursion, and by May 31, Amanullah sued for peace. Despite being soundly defeated, Afghanistan came off reasonably well from this conflict. Amanullah retained his power, and, by the Treaty of Rawalpindi, Britain gave up its claim to control of Afghanistan's foreign affairs, but Afghanistan lost the subsidy that had hitherto been paid by Britain since the Treaty of Gadamank. One consequence of this was that Afghanistan became one of the first countries to recognize and establish diplomatic relations with the new Soviet Russia. Forced to abdicate in January of 1929, shortly after his 1927-28 tour of Europe. Succeeded for 5 days by his older brother, Inayatullah.

Aman-ul-Mulk (??-1892)

Strong Mehar of Chitral for 35 years, who was considered a British ally at the time. His death in August 1892 gave rise to a power struggle which lasted two years, with British intervention and the siege of Chitral as the outcome. (See entry for Robertson.) The two years following his death were sufficiently chaotic that it is worth listing his successors during that period in order: Afzul-ul-Mulk, Sher Afzul, Nizam-ul-Mulk, Amir-ul-Mulk, and Shuja-ul-Mulk, all of whom were his sons, except for Sher Afzul, who was his brother. It is hard to match the ruthlessness and intrigue of this family!

Amherst, William Pitt (Amherst, Earl of) (1773-1857)

Sent as ambassador extraordinaire to China in 1816. Got to China, but was not permitted to visit Beijing. Mission a failure. Governor-General of Bengal 1823-1828, following Lord Moira. Succeeded by Lord William Bentick. [Cit. 1 ].

Amir-ul-Mulk

Half-witted son of Aman-ul-Mulk, Mehar of Chitral. Took asylum in Afghanistan with his Pathan uncle, Umra Khan, when his brother Afzul-ul-Mulk seized power on his father's death in 1892. Became Mehtar of Chitral by murdering his half brother, the British supported Nizam-ul-Mulk. Amir asked for British recognition from Gurdon, who had traveled there with a small escort of 8 men, to pay respects to Nizam. Fearing for his safety, Gurdon stalled Amir, and sent a message to Robertson in Gilgit for help, which came. While British were at Mastuj in January 1895, news came that Umra Khan had entered Chitral territory with an army, apparently at the request of Amir, who feared British retribution for the killing of Nizam. This led to Robertson continuing on to the town of Chitral, and the subsequent siege. Deposed by British (Robertson) and replaced by his 12 year old brother, Shuja-ul-Mulk.

Andrada (Andrale), Father Antonio de (1580 - 1634)

A Jesuit father. Partially motivated by the reports of Christian communities surviving in Tibet (such as from Goes and Almeida), left on his first trip from the mission in Agra, near Delhi, in 1624. Was accompanied by a lay brother, Manuel Marques. Traveled to western Himalayan province of Guge, visiting the capital of Tsaparang. Stayed three weeks before returning to Agra. Returned in 1625 to establish a permanent mission in Tsaparang. Father Andrada was called back to Goa, in 1630, and died there in 1634. The mission in Tsaparang was closed in 1635. An attempt to reopen it in 1640 failed.

Ref:

o Wessels, C. (1924). Early Jesuit Travellers in Central Asia 1603-1721. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.

Ashraf Khan (XX - 1730)

Son of Mahmud, who he succeeded on his father's death in 1725. Halted attempt by Turks to invade Persia, and consolidated Afghan control of the country. In 1727 signed a peace treaty with Turks that gave him control over Persia in exchange for recognition of Turkish religious supremacy in Islam. The Afghan position in Persia was ended by the rise of Nadir Shah, who was

in the service of Shah Tahmasp, and Ashraf Khan was killed in 1730 during a retreat following a defeat by his army.

Auckland, George Eden, Earl of, 2nd Baron Auckland, 2nd Baron Auckland of Auckland, Baron Eden of Norwood (1784-1849)

In 1836 became governor-general of British India, in Calcutta. Succeeded Charles Metcalfe. Wrote letter which alienated Afghan leader, Dost Mohammed, demanding that he both give up his claims to Peshawar, and stop his interactions with the Russians. The letter held a veiled threat of dire consequences should he not comply, and as such, undermined the relationship built up with him by Burnes. Encouraged by Macnaghten, and against the advice of Burnes, issued the Simla Manifesto, October 1st 1838. This committed the British to restoring Shah Shujah as Amir of Afghanistan, at the expense of Dost Mohammed. The justification was ostensibly Dost Mohammed's lack of loyalty in treating with the Russians (who had already withdrawn due to the pressure put on them by Palmerston). The condition of restoring Shah Shujah was that he relinquish any claims on Peshawar, in favour of Ranjit Singh. The Simla Manifesto was enforced in 1839, by British troops, the "Army of the Indus," led by General Keane, thus precipitating the First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842). Succeeded by Lord Ellenborough in 1842.

Ref:

o Trotter, Lionel James (XXXX). Lord Auckland. XX: XX.

Aurangzib (Aurangzebe / Aurungzebe) Alamgir (1618-1707)

Third son of Shah Jehan. In 1658 Shah Jehan became ill, and Aurangzib took the opportunity to seize the throne, kill his brothers, and imprison his father, who remained in captivity until his death eight years later in 1666. Aurangzib was the last of the great Mughal emperors. While there was an emperor in name until the mutiny in 1857, their power was increasingly symbolic, being weakened by internal fighting, self indulgence and incompetence, coupled with the increasing power of the British.

Aurangzib was emperor of Hindustan for almost 50 years, from 1659 -1707. His reign doomed any chance of future harmony between Hindu and Muslim. He reversed the religious tolerance towards non-Muslims established by Akbar, destroying temples and idols, and, in 1679, reinstated the Jizya, the "poll tax" for non-Muslims. The latter part of his reign was marked by overextending himself in wars with Sikhs, Marathas and Rajputs. Was succeeded by his eldest son, Muazzin (Bahadur Shah).

Avitabile, Paolo Di (1791-1850)

Born in Agerola and began service in the Neopolitan militia. Following fall of Napoleon, ended up serving as a mercenary in Persia. Then moved to the Punjab where, along with Allard, Ventura and Court, became one of the four principal French officers serving Ranjit Singh. In 1835 was appointed Governor of Peshawar, and established order, albeit by ruthless means. He held that post during the First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842), his presence being strategic to the British. (The possession of Peshawar was the source of dispute between the Sikhs and Afghans. It had been taken by Ranjit Singh's army in 1834, and it was one of the bargaining chips used by the British in soliciting the support of the Sikhs during the war.) Avitabile left Peshawar in 1843, and returned to Italy. He is one of the few adventurers who built a fortune and was able to leave with it.

Ref:

o Cotton, Julian James (1906). General Avitabile. Calcutta: Edinburgh Press.

o Grey, C. (H. L. O. Garrett, ed.) (1929). European Adventurers of Northern India, 1785 to 1849. Lahore, India: Superintendent, Government Printing, Punjab.

Aylmer, Cat. Fenton

British sapper. Member of expedition led by Algernon Durand to Hunza in 1891. Despite being wounded, set charges at the gates of Nilt, in Nager, which when exploded, enabled the fort to be taken.

Ayub Khan, Mohammed (1857-1914)

Member of the Barakzai branch of the Durranis. Fifth son of Sher Ali by his third wife Mariam Begum. Governor of Herat. In 1874 fled to Merat, fearing that his father would imprison him, as he did his brother Yakub Khan. Returned to Herat as governor in 1879, when Yakub became Amir. He established himself as Amir at Herat from March 1880. In that year he set out from Herat with a large force with the intent of pushing the British Garrison in Kandahar out of Afghanistan, and to assert his claimed succession as Amir, following the abdication/removal of Yakub. On July 27, 1880, engaged the British under Brigadier-General George Burrows 60 km west of Kandahar at Maiwand. Severely defeated the British, who suffered over 1,000 casualties, and were pushed back to Kandahar and placed under siege. General Roberts, who was about to evacuate Kabul, on hearing of this disaster rushed to relieve the garrison. His force of 10,000 made a remarkable forced march of 300 miles in 20 days. On hearing of Roberts' advance, Ayub Khan retreated from the siege, and tried to negotiate. Roberts refused and engaged the Afghan force, on September 1, soundly defeating them (35 British fatalities compared to over 600 Afghan). The British subsequently withdrew from Kandahar, and ceded it to the Amir of Kabul, Ayub Khan's cousin Abdur Rahman. However, it was taken back by Ayub Khan in June 1881. This was not to last, and in July of that year he was pushed back from Kandahar and while tied up there, Abdur Rahman also sent a force to Herat, which they captured. The result was that Ayub was forced into exile in Persia, and Abdur Rahman was established as Amir of all of Afghanistan, rather than just Kabul. In the summer of 1888, Ayub attempted to return to Afghanistan to join the governor of Balkh, Ishaq Khan, who was rebelling against Abdur Rahman. He was headed off, however, and consequently surrended for protection to General MacLean, the British agent at Meshed. He then retired to India.

Azevedo, Luiz de (1573-1634)

Jesuit missionary from Portugal active in Afghanistan. He became a Jesuit in 1588, and sailed for the Indies in 1592. In 1605 he began his missionary labours in Ethiopia, where he remained until his death. Was one of the first Europeans to cross the Himalaya. In 1631 he reached Leh by the Mani Pass and then returned to India by Baralacha and Rohtang Passes.

Azim Khan (1818-1869)

Member of the Barakzai branch of the Durranis. Not to be confused with his uncle of the same name (see next entry). Oldest son of Dost Mohammed. Died childless. Became Amir after his brother, Amir Afzal Khan died of cholera 1867. This prompted a conflict with Afzal's son, Azim's nephew, Abdur Rahman. The resulting power struggle provided the opportunity for Sher Ali, Azim and Afzal's brother to regain control, in 1868. Azim fled to India on being deposed.

Azim Khan, Muhammed (1785-1823)

Member of the Barakzai branch of the Durranis. Not to be confused with his nephew (see previous entry). Second oldest brother of Dost Mohammed. Governor of Peshawar 1809-1813, and of Kashmir 1813-1819.

Babur (1483 - 1530)

Great grandson of Tamerlane, and son of Omar Sheikh Mirza. Also was thirteen generations descended from Genghis Khan's second son, Chaghatai. At the age of 11, he succeeded his father as ruler of Turkistan. In 1526 he defeated Ibrahim, the Sultan of Delhi at Panipat in the Punjab. He then captured Delhi and Agra, thereby establishing the Mughal dynasty in India, which included 17 rulers and finally ended in 1857, with Bahadur Shah II, following the Sepoy Mutiny. Babur was succeeded by Humayun.

Ref:

o Eraly, Abraham (2003). The Mughal Throne: The Saga of India's Great Emperors. London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson.

Bahadur Shah (Muazzim) (1643 -1712)

Oldest son of Aurangzib, who he succeeded as Mughal emperor of Hindustan in 1707. At the time of his father's death, Bahadur was governor of Kabul. He had killed his brothers on the battlefield. He was almost 70 years old when he ascended to the throne and reigned for only 5 years. He died in 1712. In the wars of succession after his death, three of his four sons were killed, with the only remaining one being his eldest son, Jahander Shah, who succeeded him. Bahadur was uncle of Farruksiyar, who succeeded Jahander, and grandfather of Roshan Akhtar (Muhammed Shah), who in turn succeeded Farruksiyar.

Bahadur Shah II (XX - 1862)

The last of the Mughal emperors. By the time that he came to the throne, there was no power and he was a symbolic puppet of the British. The charade ended in 1857 with the Sepoy Mutiny, when he was declared independent emperor of India by the mutineers. After the rebellion, he and his family were exiled to Burma.

Bailey, Col. Frederick Marshman (Eric) (1882-1967)

British officer. Particpated in Younghusband Mission in 1903/4, following which was part of expedition to Gartok led by Rawling. Assigned to political service in December 1905 and releaved O'Conner as political agent at Gyantse until Nov. 1906, while the latter was on leave. Then appointed trade agent in the Chumbi Valley until August 1909. In 1911, while on leave, travelled overland from Beijing, through Tibet, to Assam with the intent of exploring the Tsangpo River. He was stopped in Tibet. However in 1913, he returned to Tibet and the lower Tsangpo. This time he travelled with Morshead, from Assam (the first Europeans to do so).and was able to disprove the popular belief that there was a great waterfall where the river cut through the Himalaya. On the return to India, they mapped regions along the Tibet / Burma / Assam border. (This survey was timely with respect to the conference led by McMahon, and which led to the Simla Convention.) Bailey was awareded the Royal Geographical Society Gold Medal for this trip. In all of his trips, Bailey was an avid collector of flora and fauna. There are a large number of flowers, butterflies, etc. whose names reflect his discovery of them to western science.

Refs:

o Bailey, F.M. (1945). China, Tibet, Assam. A Journey, 1911. London: Jonathan Cape .

o Bailey, F.M. (1946). Mission to Tashkent. London: Jonathan Cape

o Bailey, F.M. (1957). No Passport to Tibet. London: Rupert Hart-Davis.

o Swinson, Arthur (1971). Beyond the Frontiers: The Biography of Colonel F.M. Bailey Explorer and Special Agent. London: Hutchinson & Co.

Barlow, Sir George Hilaro (1762-1847)

Nominated as provisonal Governor General of Bengal 1805-1807, on the death of Cornwallis. His nomination was not accepted by the home government, and Lord (1st Earl of) Minto was appointed. Made governor of Madras, but recalled in 1812. [Cit. 1 ].

Battuta, Ibn (c.1304 - c.1369)

Arab traveler born in Tangier. Began his travels in 1325, on a Hajj to Mecca. From there he carried on. He visited Iraq, Persia, and East Africa. He then went on to India, the Maldives, Malaysia and China. He returned home from his travels in about 1354, and dictated his story to scribes. He is often referred to as the "Marco Polo of the Arab World."

Refs:

o Dunn, Ross E. (1986). The Adventures of Ibn Battuta, a Muslim Traveler of the Fourteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press.

o Gibb, H. A. R., Beckingham, C. F. & Bivar; A. D. H. (eds.)(1958-2000). The Travels of Ibn Battuta, A. D. 1325 - 1354. 5 vols. Cambridge: The Hakluyt Society.

o National Geographic (1991). Ibn Battuta, Prince of travelers. National Geographic, vol 180, no. 6/ December.

Beg, Mohammed Yakub (1820-1877)

In 1864, Yakub Beg led a successful Uighur (Uyghur) revolt in East Turkistan against the Manchu Chinese. This pushed the Chinese temporarily out of control of the region, and established Muslim control. This was in the middle of "The Great Game" between Russia and British India, and it was during Yakub Beg's tenure that Hayward and Shaw visited, and were held, in Kashgar. British India's desire to establish trade relations with Beg led to the 1st and 2nd Forsyth Missions.

To check the advance of Yakub to the west, the Russians who had captured Tashkent (27 June, 1865) took possession of Ili (Kulja), i.e. the north of the T'ien-shan, on 4 July, 1871. This Russian expansion led the British to put pressure on the Manchu court to re-annex East Turkistan. This they began in 1876, led by General Zho Zhung Tang. Yakub Beg was poisoned in 1876 and died the next year. By 1878, East Turkistan was once again under Chinese rule. After this invasion the region was given the name Xinjiang which means "new territory". (Sources: 1, 2).

Bekovich, Prince Alexander

See Cherkasski, Prince Alexander Bekovitch

Bell, Sir Charles

British Political Officer in Sikkim, and then Tibet at the beginning of the 20th Century. Developed a close relationship with the 13th Dalai Lama, for whom Bell was responsible when, from 1910-12, he fled Lhasa for Darjeeling, due to the Chinese invasion of Tibet. Bell is also the official who, in 1920, Col. Howard-Bury had to sway in order to gain permission for the 1921 British Everest Reconnaissance Expedition, since it needed to approach the mountain through Tibet

Refs:

o Bell, C. (1924). Tibet: Past & Present. London: Oxford University Press.

o Bell, C. (1928). The People of Tibet. Oxford: Clarendon Press

o Bell, C. (1931). The Religion of Tibet. Oxford: Clarendon Press

o Bell, C. (1946). Portrait of a Dalai Lama. London: Collins.

Benjamin of Tudela, Rabbi

Spanish Rabbi who traveled (1160-1173) from Spain, through Syria, Bagdad, Persia and to the frontiers of China.

Refs:

o Komroff, Manuel (ed.)(1928). Contemporaries of Marco Polo. New York: Boni & Liveright.

Bentick, Lord William (1774-1839)

Succeeded Lord Amherst as governor-general of Bengal (1828-1833). Appointed Governor General of India (1833-35). Succeded by Charles Metcalfe.

Billi, Francesco Orazio della Penna di (1680- 1745)

A Capuchin father who dedicated 33 of his 65 years to the mission in Tibet. In 1717-18 spent 9 months in the Sera Monastery, in Lhasa, studying the Tibetan language, where he began compiling a Tibetan-Italian dictionary which he finished (33,000 words) and published in 1732. He also translated a number of Tibetan books, including The Life of the Buddha, and Tibetan Book of the Dead. Spent about a decade alone in Lhasa with one other Capuchin, Father Giovacchino. leaving in 1729. Then spent two years at the Kathmandu mission before returning to Rome. Returned to Lhasa from 1739-40. Was forced to leave Tibet for Nepal in 1745. Died in Kathmandu. [Cit:1]

Blacker, Valentine (1778-1826)

Surveyor general of India 1823-36, appointed on the death of Lambton. On this appointment, the Great Trigonometric Survey (GTS), now supervised by Everest, came under his orders.

Blavatsky, Elena Petrovna (1831-1891)

Mystic, co-founder (with Henry Steele Olcott) of the Theosophical Society. Russian daughter of German father.[Cit: 1, 2]

Bogle, George (1746-1781)

Scottish. Collector of Rangpur. In 1774, sent by Warren Hastings on a mission to investigate the potential for trade between Tibet and the East India Company. From the perspective of trade, the mission was a failure, and Bogle did not make it to Lhasa, nor meet the Dalai Lama. He did, however, become close to the regent, the Tashi Lama, and produced one of the best and earliest narratives describing Tibet in the 18th Century. He was accompanied on his trip by Alexander Hamilton. A summary of the references to the mission of Bogle in contemporary Tibetan texts can be found in the article by Petech, referenced below.

Refs

o Markham, Clements, R. (1876). Narratives of the Mission of George Bogle to Tibet and of the Journey of Thomas Manning to Lhasa. London: Trübner & Co.

o Petech, Luciano. (1949). "The missions of Bogle and Turner according to the Tibetan texts". T'oung Pao, XXXIX, 330-346.

o Woodcock, G. (1971). Into Tibet: The Early British Explorers. London: Faber & Faber.

Bonvalot, Pierre Gabriel Édouard (1853–1933)

French explorer. In 1880–82 traveled through Kohistan, and returned to France by way of Bokhara, the Caspian Sea, and the Caucasus. In 1890 appeared in Tibet, traveling with Prince Henry d'Orleans, and was turned back north of Lhasa.

Ref:

o Bonvalot, Gabriel (1889). Through the Heart of Asia: over the Pamir to India. 2 Volumes. London: Chapman and Hall.

o Bonvalot, Gabriel (1891). Across Tibet (1889-1890) - Being a Translation of "De Paris Au Tonkin a Travers Le Thibet Inconnu." With Illustrations from Photographs Taken By Prince Henry of Orleans and Map of India. Translated By C B Pitman. 2 Volumes. London: Casse & Company.

Bose, Kishen Kant

Agent sent by David Scott to Lhasa, via Bhutan in 1815. Failed to get into Tibet.

Bower, Lieut. (later Maj. General Sir) Hamilton (1858-1940)

Indian army intelligence officer. In 1889, while on a shooting expedition in Chinese Turkistan, (where he was also hunting the murderer of the Scottish explorer Andrew Dalgleish), he purchased a number of Sanskrit documents. They were written on leaves, and were found by treasure-hunters digging in a ruined temple near the town of Kuchain . They dated from about the 5th century A.D. This discovery, now known as "The Bower Manuscript" was extremely important, and stirred a hunger for artifacts by foreigners.

In 1891-2 made a trip from Ladakh, through Tibet, almost to Lhasa, then on to China. Was accompanied by another officer, Surgeon-Captain W.G. Thorold, and the pundit, Atma Ram, who paced the route. This resulted in the first European crossing of the Tibetan plateau.

Refs:

o Bower, Hamilton. (1894). Diary of a Journey Across Tibet. London: Rivington.

Brocherol

Two brothers who were mountain guides that accompanied Tom Longstaff on his (then) altitude record setting ascent of Trisul (23,406'), and in 1909 accompanied the Duke of Abruzzi to K2.

Brown, John

See Henry Potter.

Bruce, Gen. Charles Granville (1866–1939)

British officer in India and early explorer and mountaineer in the Himalaya and Karakoram. Accompanied Conway in his 1892 exploration of the Baltoro region of the Karakoram.

In 1893 accompanied Dr. Robertson on his mission to Chitral to bestow recognition on Nizam-uk-Mulk as Mehtar. Was accompanied on this mission by Younghusband, and it was during this mission that he and Younghusband likely became the first to discuss mounting an expedition to explore Everest. In Himalayan Wanderer, Bruce says that it was Younghusband's idea. In The Epic of Mount Everest, Younghusband says that it was Bruce's.

Joined Mummery's 1895 attempt on Nanga Parbat for a while, but had to depart early due to his leave being up. Also climbed with Longstaff on Trisul in 1907. Led the second Everest expedition in 1922. He also started off leading the third, 1924, expedition, but had to drop out due to malaria. Edward Norton took over leadership.

Refs:

o Bruce, C.G. (1910). Twenty Years in the Himalaya. Edward Arnold, London

o Bruce, C.G. (1914). Kulu and Lahoul. An account of my latest climbing journeys in the Himalaya. Edward Arnold, London

o Bruce, C.G. (1923). The Assault on Mount Everest, 1922. London: Longmans, Green & Co.

o Bruce, C.G. (1934). Himalayan Wanderer. London: Alexander Maclehose & Company.

Bryden, Dr. William

Initially appeared to be the only survivor of the British retreat from Kabul during the First Anglo-Afghan war. In 1842 he rode up alone, wounded, to the British garrison in Jalalabad and provided the first news of what had happened during the retreat. Subsequently, other survivors made it home, as did most of the hostages, who were returned by Shakespear. Later, Bryden was one of the British caught in the siege of Lucknow, and liberated in November, 1857.

Buchanan, Dr.

Accompanied Captain Knox to Kathmandu in 1801. Was the main advisor on Nepal to the East India Company during the Anglo-Gurkha conflict of 1814-16. Warned of potential problems with Anglo-Chinese relations due to the Britsh activity in Nepal, which China considered as falling within their sphere. This warning was supported by intelligence provided by Mir Izzet Ullah. To mitigate the risk, on the advice of J. Adam, the British established relations with Sikkim in the hopes of using this as a base for establishing a dialogue with the Chinese in Lhasa. Furthermore, Buchanan suggested that upsetting the Chinese could be avoided if the British did not annex Nepal, but rather just punished the Gurkhas, and restored the Newar chiefs (who the Gurkhas had deposed) back to power. As it turns out, since there were no descendents of the Newars to be found, Nepal remained in the hands of the Gurkhas after the war, leading to it remaining an independent state right up to the present. (Lamb, 1960).

Burnes, Sir Alexander (1805-1841)

British traveler in Indian frontier. Went to India as cadet at age 16. As an army officer in India, he studied Hinustani and Persian, and eventually transferred from the Bombay Native Infantry to the Political branch. His first succesful trip began in January 1831. Four dray (heavy) horses, and a carriage, had been shipped from England as a gift to Ranjit Singh. Burnes was given the task of escorting the horses to Lahore. He was accompanied by Ensign J.D. Leckie, an Indian surveyor, Muhoomed Ali, and an Indian doctor. The decision was made to transport the horses up the Indus by boat, a distance of about 1,000 miles. The British had not done this route before, and the trip therefore served a double purpose, that is, providing an excuse to explore its viability. (Burnes had instructions to survey the river, depth, breadth, navigability, as well as supplies of fuel for steam boats, and the political situation of the territories through which they passed.) The trip took 6 months. On arrival in Lahore, the horses were marvelled at, and Burnes and Leckie were extremely well received by Ranjit Singh.

During this trip, Burnes encountered native traders who had traveled through Afghanistan to Bokhara. Their descriptions of the city and the trip helped plant the seed for his next trip. This he began in 1832. He left Lahore in Afghan dress and traveled by way of Peshawar (where he encountered Avitabile) and Kabul across the Hindu Kush to Balkh and from there by Bokhara, Asterabad, and Tehran to Bushire.

In 1836, Burnes was appointed commercial agent in Kabul, where he established a close personal relationship with Dost Mohammed, the Amir of Afghanistan. With Wood, and others, he produced a number of maps of the region.

Burnes was in Kabul in December 1837 when the Russian officer, Vitkevich, arrived. For a while he was able to maintain British influence on Dost Mohammed, but was finally undermined by threatening and unacceptable demands made on behalf of the British in a letter from Lord Auckland. This turned Dost Mohammed to the Russians, and Burnes had to leave Kabul in April 1838.

He returned to Kabul as political resident in 1839, accompanying the Army of the Indus, led by Keane, and as assistant to Macnaghten, who accompanied the army in order to be the British envoy to the court of the yet-to-be-installed Shah Shujah.

Burnes lived in the town, rather than the British cantonment, where he was assassinated November 2nd 1841, along with his escort, his brother, and William Broadfoot. (Sources: 1, 2, 3, 4)

Refs:

o Burnes, Sir Alexander (1834). Travels into Bokhara; being the Account of a Journey from India to Cabool, Tartary, and Persia; also Narrative of a Voyage on the Indus, from the Sea to Lahore, with Presents from the King of Great Britain; performed under the Orders of the Supreme Government of India, in the Years 1831, 1832, and 1833. (3 vols.) London, John Murray.

o Burnes, Sir Alexander (1842). Cabool, A Personal Narrative of a Journey to and Residence in that City, 1836, 7 and 8. London: John Murray.

o Lunt, James (1969). Bokhara Burnes. London: Faber & Faber.

Burrows, Brigadier-General George

British general who in 1880 engaged Ayaub Khan at Maiwand, in defense of Kandahar. He had limited field experience and made some serious errors, including underestimating the experience of the Afghan force, overestimating the British ability to handle the significantly larger Afghan force, and allowing the Afghans to hold the higher ground. His army was nearly destroyed, and had to retreat to Kandahar, with over 1,000 casualties, where they were finally relieved by General Roberts.

Cabral, Father John (1599 - ??)

Portuguese Jesuit father. Had been at the Tsaparang mission established by Father Antonio de Andrada. In 1626 traveled with Father Stephen Cacella to Utsang and its capital Shigatse, in south-east Tibet, in order to start a new mission. Returned to India in 1628, via Nepal. Returned to Shigatse, June 1631, after the death of Cacella, to head up the mission alone. The mission was closed in 1632, and Cabral returned to India.

Refs:

o Wessels, C. (1924). Early Jesuit Travellers in Central Asia 1603-1721. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.

Cacella, Stephen (1585 - 1630)

Portuguese Jesuit father. Had been at the Tsaparang mission established by Father Antonio de Andrada. In 1626 traveled with Father John Cabral to Utsang and its capital Shigatse, in south-east Tibet, in order to start a new mission. Returned to India in 1629. Returned to Shigatse where he died in March 1630.

Refs:

· Wessels, C. (1924). Early Jesuit Travellers in Central Asia 1603-1721. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.

Cai Yin

An official in the court of the Han emperor Mingdi. The legend has it that Mingdi had a dream about Buddha, and as a consequence sent Cai Yin, in 68 AD, to Central Asia to learn more about Buddhism. Cai Yin returned after 3 years in India and brought back with him not only the images of Buddha and Buddhist scriptures, but also two Buddhist monks: She-mo-teng and Chu-fa-lan. This was the first time that China had Buddhist monks and their ways of worship. [Cit. 1 ]

Caley, Dr.

First official British Agent in Ladakh. Appointed in 1867. Establishing the position had been suggested by Egerton. However, to keep things in perspective, it is worth noting that Moorcroft had unofficially appointed himself in that position in 1820.

Campbell, ??

British soldier captured by Dost Mohammed at the Battle of Kandahar, against Shah Shujah. Became head officer in the army of Dost Mohammed's second oldest son, Afzal Khan. Converted to Islam, and changed his name, and was known as General Sher Mohammed Khan. Was known as competent doctor, as well as soldier.

Campbell, Dr. Archibald

Appointed Superintendent of Darjeeling in 1839. Traveling companion of the Botanist, Joseph Hooker, who made two attempts to enter Tibet in 1849.

Campbell, Sir Colin

British army officer. One of the few to emerge with distinction from the Crimean War. Led second relief force which finally broke the seige at Lucknow, during the Indian Mutiny. See also James Outram, Henry Lawrence, and Henry Havelock.

Canning, Charles John (Canning, Earl) (1812-1862)

Governor General of India (1856-58). Succeeded Lord Dalhousie. Following the Sepoy Revolt of 1857, the British Government took over rule of India from the East India Company, and Canning was appointed the first Viceroy (1858-62). Succeeded by Lord Elgin.

Carey, Arthur Douglas (1844-1936)

Carey joined the Bombay civil service in 1864. He became interested in Central Asia and in 1885-87 undertook a self-financed expedition to explore Turkistan and Northern Tibet. He took with him as a translator, surveyor and assistant the Scottish explorer and trader, Andrew Dalgleish. They stated in Leh, and went east, then north to Khotan (where they just missed Prejevalski) and then wintered in Kurla. The plan was to continue to Lhasa, but this was abandoned, and they returned across the Gobi desert then via Turfan, Kucha, Yarkand, and then the Karakoram pass to Leh. The territory covered was later visited by the French explorers Bonvalot and Prince Henry d'Orleans. Carey retired from the civil service in 1893, and subsequently lived in Switzerland.

Refs:

o Anon (1887). Mr. A.D. Carey's Travels in Turkistan and Tibet. Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography, New Monthly Series, 9(3), 175-176.

o Anon (1936). Obituary: Arthur Douglas Carey. The Geographical Journal, 88(2), 191-192.

o Carey, A.D. (1887). A Journey Round Chinese Turkistan and Along the Northern Frontier of Tibet. Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Montly Record of Geography, New Monthly Series 9(12), 731-752.

Carpine (Carpini), Giovanni da Pianô (di Plano)(John of Pian de Carpine) (1182 - 1252)

Franciscan friar born in what is now della Magione, in Perugia. Head of order in Koln. At 65 years of age, he was the first western European envoy to the Mongol court in Karakorum. He was sent by Pope Innocent IV. He left Lyons, France at Easter, 1245, and was ccompanied by brothers Stephen of Bohemia and Benedict of Poland. Traveled via Kiev. It took nearly a year to cross Europe and reach Babur's camp outside of Kiev, which marked the Mongolian frontier. Because of the efficiency of the Mongolian transportation system, it took only106 days to travel the approximately 3,000 remaining miles to Karakorum. Carpine expected to be visiting the Great Khan Ogodei, but he had died in 1241, and his wife Toregene was acting as regent (1241-46). Carpine arrived just as her oldest son, Guyuk, was being installed as Great Khan. Carpine and his colleagues were cordially received, but this was largely because the Mongols believed that they were coming with a letter of submission from the Pope. However, just the opposite was true. The pope not only instructed them to become Christian (which a large number of them already were - just not Roman Catholic), and insisted that they submit to Rome, as God's representative on Earth, and halt any further expansion into Europe. Once the objective of the mission was understood, it was sent back and returned to Europe in 1247. [Cit. 1 ]

Ref:

o Komroff, Manuel (ed.)(1928). Contemporaries of Marco Polo. New York: Boni & Liveright.

o Rockhill, William Woodville. (Ed. & trans.)(1900). The Journey of William Rubruck to the Eastern Parts of the World, 1253-55, as Narrated by Himself, with Two Accounts of the Earlier Journey of John of Pian De Carpine. London: Hakluyt Society.

Cathcart, Lt.-Col.

British army officer. In 1787, following trips to Tibet by Bogle and Turner, deputed by Board of Control of the East India Company to travel to Bejing to discuss increasing trade with China beyond that through Canton. Went by sea, with plans for his assistant, Agnew, to return to India overland, via Tibet. Mission failed due to Cathcart dying at sea en route. Project was revived with subsequent mission by Lord Macartney.

Cavagnari, Maj. Sir Pierre Louis Napoleon (1841-1879)

In May 1879, signed Treaty of Gadamank with Amir Yakub Khan. By that treaty, became British envoy, resident in Kabul in July 1879. During an uprising, he was murdered there in Sept. 3, 1879, along with the bulk of his escort, which consisted of about 80 men.

Chamberlain, General Sir Neville Bowes (1820 -

(No relation to the later prime minister.) Commissioned as an ensign in Bengal Native Infantry at 17. Wounded six times in first Anglo-Afghan War, but missed final fiasco. Served in both Anglo-Sikh wars. Commandant of the Punjab Frontier Force in Peshawar at time of the mutiny. In 1863 led expedition to Malka agains followers of Sayyid Ahmed Shah (the Umbeyla Campaign). In 1878 sent with small force as envoy to Sher Ali. However stopped from entering Afghanistan at the Khyber pass by Afghan troops. This "insult" to British prestige helped precipitate the second Anglo-Afghan conflict.

Chang Ch'ien

See Zhang Quian

Chapman, Dr.

Assistant to Captain Lloyd, when in 1836 Lloyd was appointed Local Agent, to assist the development of Darjeeling.

Chebu Lama

Pro-British Lama in Sikkim who opposed Namgyal, and was the only one with the power to do so. Accompanied Hooker and Campbell on their two trips into Tibetan territory in 1849, and was arrested along with them on their return to Sikkimese territory.

Chelmsford, Frederic John Napier Thesiger, 1st Viscount, Baron Chelmsford of Chelmsford (1868-1933)

Viceroy of India (1916-1921). Followed Lord Hardinge of Penshurst. Succeeded by Lord Reading.

Cheng Ho

See Admiral Zheng He

Cherkasski, Prince Alexander Bekovitch

Officer in the Russian Life Guards regiment. Was a Muslim prince from the Caucasus who had converted to Christianity. Sent by Peter the Great on an expedition to treat with the Khan of Khiva, on the Oxus. The Khan had previously requested help from the Russians against invasions threatening his territory, a request that was denied. This expedition came later, and was more interested in gold, and the potential of Khiva as a staging post for access to Central Asia.

Set off in 1717 by sea across the Caspian leading a military mission. After considerable hardships crossing the desert en route, he and his troops arrived and appeared to be well received. They were split into smaller groups by the Khan's representative, ostensibly in order to be more easily accommodated. However, once divided, they were massacred. Only 40 survived. Of them, some were sold to slavery and some allowed to return. Only a few made it home to report the events. There was no retribution, since Peter was preoccupied with other initiatives.

Refs:

o Michell, Robert (trans.) (1873). A Narrative of the Russian Military Expedition to Khiva, Conducted by Prince Alexander Bekovitch Cherkasski in 1717. XX:X

Chester, Daniel

Early British adventurer. Along with Peter Miller, fought for the Persians as early as 1649, and took part in the seige of "Canddahore" (Kandahar). (Cited in Singer.)

Christie, Captain Charles (??- 1812)

British officer. In 1810, along with Lt. Henry Pottinger, disguised as horse traders, set off on an expedition to explore through Baluchistan, southern Afghanistan to Herat and then on to Persia. They started out together, then split up, each taking a different route. Christie went north then west. They were among the first Europeans to travel in this region, and their trip was one of the first of the "Great Game." Christie was killed on the banks of the River Aras, while serving as an advisor to Persian troops in 1812. The Persian troops were caught off guard by a much smaller Russian force, due to Abbas Mirza, their leader, the son and heir of the Shah, not posting pickets, despite the advice of Christie.

Church, Percy W.

Refs:

o Church, Percy W. (1901). Chinese Turkestan with Camera and Rifle. London: Rivingtons.

Clerk, Sir G. R.

British agent to the North-West Frontier in 1841, during the invasion of Tibet by the Dogras from the state of Jummu and Kashmir, under Gulab Singh. Argued that the reason for the invasion was to control the trade in shawl wool in the Gartok area, and with Ladakh. Also expressed concern that Gulab Singh may have been working towards a union with the Gurkhas in Nepal, which would have provided a significant threat to British interests in the region. Advocated a consistent position of neutrality in the Tibetan-Dogra conflict. Clerk advised J.D. Cunningham to maintain the role of observer, or at most, mediator.

Clive, Robert (Baron Clive of Plassey) (1725-1774)

Began as a writer for the East India Company in Madras. His performance during the defence of Madras won him a commission, although he was never trained as a soldier. In March 1757, aided Admiral Watson in taking the strategic French Fort d'Orléans, at Chandernagar, which was the beginning of the end of the French position in India. In June of that year, defeated the Moghul Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daula, at the Battle of Plassey, and replaced him as Nawab with Mir Jafar. Clive's military successes were more due to intrigue than ability in the field, and he personally profitted greatly financially from his actions.

Following Plassey, Bengal rapidly came effectively under British control, the first territory in India to do so on this scale. Clive was appointed first governor, and made Baron Clive of Plassey. After having returned to England, he returned to Bengal to serve a second term as governor. He appointed James Rennell to survey the region. Clive was succeeded (not directly) as governor in 1772 by Warren Hastings. Embittered and sick, Clive committed suicide in 1774. [Cit. 1].

Ref:

o Chaudhuri, N.C. (1975). Clive of India. XX: XX.

o Forrest, G.W. (1918). Life of Lord Clive. XX: XX.

o Spear, T.G.P. (1975). Master of Bengal: Clive and his India. XX:XX.

Cobbold, Ralph, G.

Cobbold was a British hunter who traveled through Gilgit to the Kilgit pass, over the Pamirs to Kashgar. He was the first British sport hunter who actively hunted in the Pamirs and while there photographed live Ovis poli for the first time. He arrived in Kashgar in 1898 where he met Macartney. He also had meetings with Petrovsky, who revealed to him that he had been receiving reports of the contents of all of Younghusband's meetings with the Chinese Amban in 1890-91.

Ref:

o Cobbold, Ralph G. (1900). Innermost Asia: Travel and Sport in the Pamirs. London: William Heinemann.

Colebrook, Robert Hyde

Surveyor General of Bengal 1794-1808. In 1808 received permission from the Governor General, Baron (1st Earl of) Minto, to explore and survey the source of the Ganges. Since illness prevented him from proceeding himself (as he had hoped), he sent a party led by (the then) Lieutenant Webb accompanied by Captain Raper, and Capt. Hyder Young Hearsey. They reached the source of the eastern branch near Badrinath.

Conolly, Captain Arthur (1807-1842)

British army officer and explorer. Cousin of Macnaghten. In 1829-30, traveled overland back from Britain to India, through Russia, across the Caucasus and to Kandahar. Coined the term, "the Great Game" to describe the struggle between Russia and Britain for influence in Central Asia. Confirmed the potential for a Russian invasion of India through Afghanistan, or via Persia. A devout Christian, who felt that Britain could push back Russian influence and put down slavery through religion. Sent to serve in Kabul after the British "victory." When Stoddart was imprisoned in 1839 by the Amir/Khan of Bokhara, Conolly volunteered to go and try and secure his release. He left Kabul in Sept. 1840, on a mission to convince the various khanates en route to renounce slavery. He reached Khiva in early 1841, proceeded to Khokand, then on to Bokhara, arriving in November 1841. There he was received by Amir Nasrullah Khan, but along with Stoddart was imprisoned and then beheaded in June 1842. Brother of John.

Conolly, Lieut. John

Macnaghten's aide during the siege of Kabul. Brother of Arthur.

Conway, Martin

British art historian who was an early explorer and climber. Traveled in the Alps, Greenland and South America. Led an expedition to the Baltoro region of the Karakoram in 1892. This expedition included C.G. Bruce, Mattias Zubriggen, A.D. McCormick, Oscar Eckenstein, J.H. Roudebush, Col. Lloyd-Dickin. Became president of the British Alpine Club in 1902.

Refs:

o Conway, Sir W. Martin, (1891). "One Thousand Miles Through the Alps." In Edward Wilson, et. al. (1897). Mountain Climbing. Charles Scribner's Sons

o Conway, W.M. (1894). Climbing and Exploration in the Karakoram-Himalayas. London: T. Fisher Unwin.

Cornwallis, Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess and 2nd Earl, Vicount Brome, Baron Cornwallis of Eye (1738 - 1805)

Important British officer during the American Revolution, famous for the battle at Yorktown in 1781. After the war he returned to Great Britain. Followed Hastings as Governor-General and Commander in Chief in India (1786-93). Alienated Tibet due to his negative response to their request for British support when the Gurkhas invaded Tibet from Nepal in 1788. Cornwallis only agreed not to help the Gurkhas. When the Gurkhas invaded Tibet a second time, in the absence of British support, the Tibetans went to the Chinese.

Confronted with defeat at the hands of the Chinese forces, the Gurkhas sought British help from Cornwallis. This he declined. Rather, in 1793, he sent Kirkpatrick to Nepal as a mediator. However, there was nothing to mediate, since the Gurkhas were defeated. What resulted from the British action was the alienation of all three parties: Nepalese Gurkhas, the Tibetans and the Chinese.

One result was the consolidation of the Chinese suzerainty of Tibet, which was to have significant long-term consequence. (It was not until after the Japanese defeat of the Chinese in 1895 that Tibet was in a position to exercise any attempt at independent foreign policy.) Another was an end to the (albeit limited) trade with Tibet resulting from Turner's 1783-84 mission. A third result was a closing of Tibet to Europeans, much as China was also closed. These conditions were to last essentially until the Younghusband mission/invasion of 1904-5.

Cornwallis returned to England in 1793, and was succeeded by Sir John Shore. In 1805, returned as Governor General of India, where he died the same year. He was succeeded then by Sir George Barlow. [Cit. 1].

Court, Claude Auguste (1793-1861)

Along with Allard, Ventura and Avitabile, was one of the four principal French officers serving Ranjit Singh, (and the most educated of them). Began his military career in Napoleonic army. On the Bourbons resuming power, served in Persian army. With the increase in influence of British officers in Persian service, left with Avitable and went overland to the Punjab. His "Itinerary" of this trip was a vital document, since it contained accurate and valuable information on the geography, etc. of the route to Kabul. This was subsequently used both by Burnes, and by the British army in the first Anglo-Afghan war. On reaching Lahore, Court served as ordnance officer. After the death of Ranjit Singh and the assasination of Shah Shujah (1842), he returned to France.

Ref:

o Court, C.A. (1929). Itinerary of a Journey from Persia to Kabul Made in the Year 1826. Appendix 3, in C. Grey, (H. L. O. Garrett, ed.). European Adventurers of Northern India, 1785 to 1849. Lahore, India: Superintendent, Government Printing, Punjab.

o Grey, C. (H. L. O. Garrett, ed.) (1929). European Adventurers of Northern India, 1785 to 1849. Lahore, India: Superintendent, Government Printing, Punjab.

Coryat, Thomas

Early British traveler who in 1612-1616 walked from Aleppo in north western Syria, across Persia and Afghanistan, to India. There he visited the court of the Great Moghul, Jehangir, in Agra. Coryat died in Surat, India. An account of his travels in Europe was published in 1611, and reprinted by James MacLehose and Sons in Glasgow in 1905. These volumes, however, only cover his travels in Europe. However, vol. III. of the 1776 edition of his book, listed below, contains letters sent from his travels in the east.

Refs:

o Coryat, Thomas (1776). Coryat's Crudities reprinted from the edition of 1611. To which are now added, his letters from India, etc. and extracts relating to him, from various authors: being a more particular account of his travels (mostly on foot) in different parts of the globe, than any hitherto published. Together with his orations, character, death, etc. 3 volumes. London: Cater.

Crawford, Charles

After1801 signed treaty between Nepal and the East India Company,. Was in charge of the military escort for during the residency of Knox in Kathmandu. The British withdrew in 1803. During his brief time there, he undertook some important surveys of the area and produced a large scale map of the Kathmandu valley. Besides this map, which was drawn from data collected first hand, he also produced a smaller scale map of Nepal, based on information obtained from native travelers. Crawford may have been the first European to suggest that the mountains in the Himalaya might be among the highest in the world (at that time, the belief was that the highest mountain in the world was Chimborazo in the Andes). The confirmation of this began to emerge in 1808 with the expedition of Webb.

Crowley, Aleister (??-1947)

British mountaineer and frequent companion of Oscar Eckenstein, whom he accompanied on the first climbing expedition to K2 in 1902. Led the first climbing expedition to Kanchenjunga, the third highest mountain in the world, in 1905. Crowley was a colourful person, so to speak, who (among other things) on the K2 expedition in 1902, threatened one of his team-mates, Guy Knowles, with a revolver, and in later life moved from climbing to practicing magic and the occult.

Cubbold, Capt. Ralph

Officer in 60th Rifles. While on "shooting party" (generally interpreted as a deniable intelligence exercise) in the Pamirs, was told by a Russian officer that the Russians intended to invade Chitral if the British left, following the siege of 1895.

Cuillier, Pierre

See Perron.

Cunningham, Sir Alexander (1814–1893)

English archaeologist and army engineer, who on retiring in 1861, was head (1861–65, 1870–85) of the archaeological survey of India. Following the conclusion of the first Anglo-Sikh war, in July 1846, then a Captain with the Bengal engineers, was appointed (along with Mr. P.A. Vans Agnew) as joint commissioner to establish the boundary between Ladakh and Tibet.

In 1847, appointed to head up a second boundary commission. A secondary objective was to gain intelligence on Tibetan trade. Members of the commission included Henry Strachey and Dr. Thomas Thompson. Again, there was no participation from the Tibet side, and no cooperation from Gulab Singh, so the boundary was determined by the British commission, alone.

In 1867, then a Major General, Cunningham was knighted.

Ref:

o Cunningham, A. (1854). Ladak, Physical, Statistical and Historical with Notices of the Surrounding Countries. London: William Allen.

Cunningham, Lieut. Joseph Davey

Historian of the Sikhs. In 1841, sent up the Sutlej, to Kanawar, near the Tibet border, in order to observe and report developments concerning the Sikh movement back out of Tibet, under Gulab Singh. In that year, first suggested constructing a road along the route. Authorization came from Dalhousie in 1850 to start construction on what came to be known as the Hindustan-Tibet road. During the year spent in Kanawar, collected data on the size of the trade in shawl wool, which from these data, was seen to have significantly increased in the latter 1830's.

Ref

o Cunningham, J.D. (1849). A History of the Sikhs: From the Origin of the Nation to the Battles of the Sutlej. London: John Murray.

Curzon (of Kedleston), George Nathaniel Curzon, Marquess, Viscount Scarsdale, Baron Ravensdale (1859-1925)

Traveled overland via St. Petersburg and the Trans Caspian Railway to Central Asia in 1888 with the purpose of gaining first-hand insights as to Russian activities and ambitions in the region. Appointed Viceroy of India in 1899, following Lord Elgin. Very much of the "forward" (as opposed to "masterly inactivity") school of thinking, in terms of dealing with the supposed Russian threat to Britain's interests in India. Set up the Gilgit agency under Algernon Durand. Established a 20,000 strong "Imperial Service" to defend the frontier. Initiated the Younghusband mission of 1903-04. Resigned as Viceroy in 1905. Succeeded by Lord Minto.

Ref

o Curzon, George Nathaniel (1892). Persia and the Persian Question. London: Longmans, Green and Co.

o King, Peter (Ed.)(1986). (1849). Curzon's Persia. London: Sidgwick & Jackson.

Dalgleish, Andrew (??-1888)

Scottish explorer and trader. Based in Yarkand, for fourteen years he conducted unofficial trade between Leh and Yarkand and Kashgar under the Central Asia Trading Company. While the 1st and 2nd Forsyth Missions (1870 & 1873, respectively) tried to set up formal trade with the area, which was then controlled by Yakub Beg, this failed and the designated trade agent, Shaw, had to withdraw, leaving Dalgleish the only Englishman "on the ground." Between 1885-87, he and Arthur Douglas Carey carried out an exploration of northern Tibet. Murdered in 1888 by an Afghan while ctrossing the Karakoram Pass. His murderer was identified and pursued for two years by the British, including Bower, and eventually found in Samarkand and committed suicide before he could be brought back to India for trial.

Refs:

o Anon (1887). Mr. A.D. Carey's Travels in Turkistan and Tibet. Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography, New Monthly Series, 9(3), 175-176.

o Anon (1936). Obituary: Arthur Douglas Carey. The Geographical Journal, 88(2), 191-192.

o Gill, Bir Good (2000). The Venture of the Cenral Asian Trading Company in Eastern Turkistan, 1874-5. Asian Affairs, 31(2), 181-188.

Dalhousie, James Andrew Broun Ramsay, 1st Marquess and 10th Earl of (1812-1860)

Became youngest Govenor-General of India (1847-1856). Succeeded Lord Hardinge of Lahore. Annexed the Punjab, following the second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49). In 1850 authorized the start of construction of the Hindustan-Tibet road, originally suggested by J.D. Cunningham in 1841. The route was to be from the plains, to Simla, then follow the Sutlej to the Tibetan border, via Chini. Succeeded by Lord Canning. [Cit. 1]

Davison, Lieut.

Subaltern in the Leinsters. Met up with Younghusband in Kashgar during his stay in 1890-91. He arrived there destitute, having set out on leave, and without mountaineering experience, to cross the Mustagh Pass in emulation of Younghusband. Due to his being a British officer, his arrival in Kashgar was taken by Petrovsky as that of a spy. This he may have been, since many or most of the British officers traveling for shooting or sport in the region were actually working for intelligence, and took this guise so that their spying activities could be denied by the British government. Regardless, his arrival triggered a significant cooling in the relations between Younghusband and Petrovsky. Younghusband, believing his work done, left Kashgar in July 1891, returning back to India via the Pamirs. He left Macartney in Kashgar as the British representative, and took Davison with him. When, on his return journey, Younghusband was being ordered out of the Pamirs by Yanov, Davison was investigating Russian activity to the west. He was subsequently arrested by the Russians as well, and escorted to Chinese Turkistan. He and Younghusband made a rendezvous and returned to Gilgit to report their experiences. Died of fever on a subsequent excursion.

Deane, Col. Harold

First Commissioner of the Northwest Frontier Province, which lay between British India and Afghanistan, centred around Peshawar. The province was carved out of the Punjab in 1901.

Deasy, Capt. H.H.P.

British officer who explored areas in Tibet and Chinese Turkistan, especially around Khotan, in the late 1800's. In 1898, despite interventions by Macartney, experienced trouble from the Amban of Keriya, while traveling the Polo-Aksai route.

Ref:

o Deasy, Capt. H.H.P. (1901). In Tibet and Chinese Turkestan. London: T. Fisher Unwin.

Desideri, Ippolito (Hippolyte) (1684 - 1733)

An Italian Jesuit father. Arrived in India from Genoa in 1713. The following year set off with his superior, the Portuguese Father Manuel Freyre, with the purpose of reestablishing contact with any converts remaining from the mission in Tsaparang, which had been opened by fathers Antonio de Andrada and Marques, and closed in 1635. In 1715-16 traveled from Leh to Lhasa, where he lived until 1729, when he was obliged to leave on account of the intrigues of the Capuchins, who had founded a mission which lasted to 1760.

Ref:

o Desideri, Ippolito (Filippo Filippi, Ed.)(1932). An Account of Tibet: The Travels of Ippolito Desideri of Pistoia, S.J., 1712-1727. London: George Routledge & Sons.

Dev, Harkh

Nephew of Pundit Harbalam. Accompanied Moorcroft on his 1812 trip to Tibet. His function was to pace the route with uniform length steps in order to enable an accurate map of the route to be created. In so doing, he anticipated the technique later used by Montgomerie's pundits.

Dorjiev (Dorjief, Dorzhiev), Khambo Agvan (Aagvan, Aguan) (1854-1938)

A Buryat Buddhist monk born in Barieta, Siberia, therefore of Russian nationality. He went to Lhasa to pursue his studies, and was eventually permitted to do so, despite being "foreign." He became one of the teachers of the 13th Dalai Lama, as well as his political advisor. He had the ambition to create a Tibet-Mongolian federation that would be independent of China. In order to get their support in this, in 1898-99 and 1901, he made two trips to St. Petersburg, where he was received by senior levels of the Government. The first trip, at the invitation of Ukhtomsky, was via India, then by sea to Beijing, and then on to St. Petersburg. There he met Nicholas II. These trips were interpreted as Tibet treating with Russia. That Dorjiev traveled without detection through India compounded the suspicion with which his activities were seen, and they subsequently served as a significant catalyst to Curzon's initiation of the Younghusband mission of 1903-04. [Cit. 1]. He died in Stalin's Gulag.

There has been significant scholarly debate on what role Dorjiev was actually playing. While Curzon is generally considered to have over reacted to Dorjiev's activities, was there some foundation to his belief that Dorjiev was a Russian agent? Much of the literature is based on records from India and Britain. It is only recently that the Russian archives have opened up to scholars to contribute to the debate. But even here there is some disagreement. Kuleshov provides a study, based on newly available Russian documents, and argues that, if anything, Dorjiev was a Tibetan agent, and that Curzon was wrong. On the other hand, a more recent paper by Andreyev, which includes a newly discovered brief biography of Dorjiev, argues that Dorjiev was, in fact - as suggested by Curzon - acting on Russia's behalf.

Ref:

o Andreyev, Alexandre (1993). Dorjiev's secret work in Tibet, Tibetan Review, Sept.

o Andreyev, Alexandre (2001). An Unknown Russian Memoire by Aagvan Dorjiev. Inner Asia 3(1), 27-39.

o Kuleshov, Nikolai S. (1996). Russia's Tibet File: The Unknown Pages in the History of Tibet's Independence. Dharamsala: Library of Tibetan Works and Archives.

o Schimmelpennick van der Oye (1994). Tournament of Shadows: Russia's Great Game in Tibet, Tibetan Review, Jan.

o Snelling, J. (1993). Buddhism in Russia: The Story of Agvan Dorjhiev, Lhasa's Emissary to the Tsar. Dorset:Shaftsbury.

Dorzhiev (Dorjief), Aguan

See entry for Agvan Dorjiev.

Dost Mohammed (1793-1863)

Member of the Barakzi branch of the Durranis. Son of Sardar Payanda. In 1816 there was a rebellion against the Afghan ruler Mahmud Shah (who had come to power in 1810, having deposed his younger brother, Shah Shujah). Following 8 years of civil strife, Dost Mohammed emerged as the strongest leader, and in 1826 became Amir. This brought to power the Barukzais branch of the Durani (Duranni / Douranee) tribe, ending the dynasty of the Suddozai branch of the tribe, established by Ahmed Shah.

Dost Mohammed had two external issues. First, there was his inability to consolidate Herat into his domain, which was still under the rule of Kamran Mirza of the rival Popozai Branch of the Durranis tribe. This was further complicated by Persian attempts to annex Herat. Second, there was the annexation of Peshawar, which had been governed by his brother, Sultan Mohammed Khan, by the Sikhs, under Ranjit Singh. This occured in 1834, while Dost Mohammed was distracted dealing with a failed invasion of Shah Shujah, who was trying to regain the throne.

Under the leadership of his son, Akbar Khan, in 1836 Dost Mohammed's army tried to win back Peshawar. They defeated the Sikhs, but did not follow-up, and Peshawar remained in Sikh hands.

Since the British backed Ranjit Singh's claims on Peshawar, in 1835 Dost Mohammed turned to the Russians for support. The Russian mission led by Vitkevitch, (encountered by Rawlinson in 1837), was responding to these overtures. It entered Kabul on Christmas Eve, 1837. Despite Dost Mohammed's frustration with the British, he nevertheless had a close personal relationship with Burnes, who was resident in Kabul when the Russian delegation arrived. Dost's relationship with the British and with Burnes was undermined, however, by a communication in January 1838 from Lord Auckland, demanding that he cease treating with the Russians, as well as give up his claims on Peshawar, in favour of the Sikh claims of Ranjit Singh. This all led to the first Anglo-Afghan war (1839-42), and the British deposing Dost Mohammed and reinstating Shah Shujah (1839). [Cit.: 1].

When deposed, Dost Mohammed fled north with his son, Akbar Khan. In 1840 he sought asylum in Bokhara, where he was briefly imprisoned. He eluded his captors, and returned to Afghanistan, where he tried to raise an insurrection against the British. After some success in Kohistan, he realized his position, and returned to Kabul, where he surrendered to Macnaghten. He was then given asylum in India. Akbar remained in Afghanistan, and as the British position deteriorated, negotiated their departure. In the process, he personally killed Macnaghten.

Akbar was largely (mainly) responsible for reinstating Dost Mohammed as Amir in 1843, after assassination of Shah Shujah. He held this position until his death in 1863. This was followed by five years of civil unrest, after which his chosen successor, Sher Ali, ascended to the throne.

Dost Mohammed's family is extremely complicated, yet it helps to know something about it in order to better understand the history of his coming to power, and the struggles for power during his life and after his death. To assist in this, I have constructed somewhat of a family tree, with links to entries to the various family members.

Ref:

o Anon. (1842). "Things of the Day, No. III: Dost Mohammed," Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, April 1842, Edinburgh: William Blackwood, Vol LI(CCCXVII), 506-509.

o Lal, Mohan (1846). Life of the Amir Dost Mohammed Khan of Kabul. London: Longman.

o Singer, André (1984). "Commander of the Faithful: The Amir Dost Mohammed." Chapter 6 in, Lords of the Khyber: The Story of the North-West Frontier. London: Faber & Faber.

Dufferin, and Ava, Frederick Temple Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of, Earl of Ava, Earl of Dufferin (1826-1902)

Governor-general of Canada (1872-1878). Appointed British ambassador to Ottoman Turkey, 1881. Succeeded the Marquess of Ripon as Viceroy of India (1884-1888). Annexed Burma (Myanmar) in 1886. Succeeded by Marquess of Landsdowne.

Duncan, Jonathan

Appointed Resident of Benares. Founded Sanskrit College there in 1791. Negotiated Treaty of Commerce between the East India Company and the Government of Nepal, l March 1792 for Cornwallis. Appears that treaty, which put a maximum duty of 2½ percent on British goods was negotiated on an ill-founded assumption that the British would provide military support to the Gurkhas in their war with Tibet. A consequence was that the Gurkhas felt that they had been tricked, and the Tibetans thought that the British were supporting their enemy. Succeeded in Benares by Lumsden.

Dunmore, The Earl of

Refs

o Dunmore, The Earl of. (1893). The Pamirs; Being a Narrative of a Year's Expedition on Horseback and On Foot Through Kashmir. 2 vols. London: John Murray.

Durand, Col. Algernon

Youngest son of Henry and brother of Mortimer. Officer in the Intelligence Branch. Dispatched by Curzon to reopen the Gilgit agency in 1888, where he was responsible for both military and political issues. At end of 1891 led a force of 1,000 from Gilgit into Hunza via Chalt to the capital, Balfit (then "Hunza") in order to depose the mir, Safdur Ali.

Durand, Lieut. (later Sir) Henry Marion

British sapper in Bengal Engineers who, during the First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-42), served in the British "Army of the Indus" under Keane. En-route to Kabul, to restore Shah Shujah as Amir, the army met strong resistance at the fortified town of Ghazni. Not having siege guns, nor sufficient supplies (or time, due to the oncoming winter), to take the fort they had to set charges that would blow up one of the gates. The task was extremely dangerous, not the least because the doors were exposed. Nevertheless, this was undertaken by Durand, in an extreme act of bravery. Served as private secretary to Lord Ellenborough. Father of Sir Mortimer Durand. and Col. Algernon Durand.

Ref:

o Durand, Sir Henry Marion (1879). The First Afghan War. London: Longmans, Green & Co.

Durand, Sir H. Mortimer

Son of Lieut. Henry Durand and older brother of Algernon. Foreign Secretary of the Indian Government. In 1893 established the so-called "Durand Line", the border dividing the frontier districts of the Punjab from Afghanistan.

Ref:

o Sykes, Sir Percy M. (1926). The Right Honorable Sir Mortimer Durand: A Biography. London: Cassell and Company.

Dutreuil de Rhins, Jules

French explorer/cartographer, murdered in eastern Tibet in 1893 while traveling with Fernand Grenard (who escaped being killed). Among his papers was found an important sacred Buddhist manuscript, on birch bark, dating from before or about the 2nd century AD, which is just slightly more recent than the Bower manuscript. It had been found near Khotan.

Eckenstein. Oscar (??-1921)

British scientist and mountaineer. Was ahead of his time in terms of technique (he was the inventor of the modern crampon) as well as style. In terms of the latter, he did not subscribe to the practice of the day of always climbing with guides. This attitude, along with other factors, led to a strong animosity between him and the climbing establishment, especially as represented by the Alpine Club. This was especially true once Conway became president in 1902. He had been part of Conway's expedition to the Karakorum in 1892, and they had had conflicts. Depending which story you believe, he left or was kicked off the expedition mid-way. In 1902 led the first climbing expedition to K2, accompanied by his frequent climbing companion, Aleister Crowley. In India, he was detained by officials, apparently at the request of Conway, who was then president of the Alpine Club. Crowley took over temporary leadership of the expedition, and went on to K2. Eckenstein joined the expedition later, after obtaining his release by threatening to reveal the meddling of the Alpine Club to the press. The controversy of the expedition was not over. Another "memorable" incident consisted of included Crowley threatening one of his team-mates, Guy Knowles, with a revolver. Two members of the team, the Swiss, Dr. Jules Jacot Guillarmot and the Austrian Dr. V. Wesseley, succeeded in reaching 6523 meters (21,400 ft) on the north-eastern ridge.

Refs:

o Eckenstein, Oscar (1896). The Karakorams and Kashmir, an Account of a Journey. London: T. Fisher Unwin.

o Eckenstein, Oscar & Lorria, August. (Eds.) (1889). The Alpine Portfolio. The Pennine Alps from the Simplon to the Great St. Bernard. London, published by the editors.

Edwardes, Maj. Gen. Sir Herbert Benjamin (1819-1868)

Lieutenant of Bengal Native Infantry, seconded to the civil administration. Worked under Henry Lawrence in the establishment of a British administrative presence at Bunnu, where at the time of the Mutiny, he was Commisioner, with John Nicholson as his Deputy. Subsequently appointed Land Revenue Officer for the province of Multan. Commander of the troops used to crush the Sikh revolt at Multan. Became known as "The Hero of Multan."

Ref:

o Edwardes, XX (1886). Memorials of the Life and Letters of Major General Sir Herbert Edwardes. XX: Kegan Paul, Trench & Co.